Chapter 4 The Central Islamic Lands

The Rise Of Islam In Arabia: Faith, Community And Politics

Islam emerged in the Arabian Peninsula around 1,400 years ago, originating with the Prophet Muhammad's preaching of monotheism (worship of Allah) and the concept of a unified community of believers (umma) between 612 and 632 CE. Muhammad, an Arab by language and culture and a merchant by profession, introduced a faith with simple rituals like daily prayers (salat) and moral principles such as charity and honesty. This nascent Islamic community faced opposition from affluent Meccans who saw the rejection of their polytheistic deities as a threat to their status and economic prosperity.

The migration of Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE, known as the Hijra, marked a pivotal moment, initiating the Muslim calendar. In Medina, Muhammad established a political order that unified various tribes, including polytheists and Jews, under his leadership. This community survived through agriculture, trade, and an alms tax (zakat), supplemented by raids on Meccan caravans. Following a series of battles, Mecca was conquered, and Muhammad's influence spread, leading to increased conversions and the unification of most of Arabia under Islam.

Arabian Society Before Islam

Prior to Islam, Arabian society was largely tribal, with each tribe led by a chief chosen for personal qualities rather than just lineage. Tribes had their own deities worshipped as idols in shrines, the most prominent being the Kaba in Mecca, a pilgrimage site for many tribes. Arabs were either nomadic Bedouins, moving in search of sustenance, or settled urban dwellers engaged in trade or agriculture. While vaguely familiar with a Supreme God (Allah), their attachment to idols and shrines was stronger.

The Prophet Muhammad And The Rise Of Islam

Around 612 CE, Muhammad declared himself a messenger of God, preaching the sole worship of Allah. His message appealed to those seeking a new community identity and salvation. Acceptance of Islam meant adherence to specific rituals and moral principles, promising a share in community resources and salvation on the Day of Judgment.

The Islamic Calendar

The Islamic calendar, or Hijri era, began in 622 CE with Muhammad's migration to Medina. It is a lunar calendar of 354 days, with months beginning upon sighting the crescent moon. The Hijri year is approximately 11 days shorter than the solar year, meaning Islamic festivals do not coincide with specific seasons.

The Community Of Believers (Umma)

The concept of the umma, or community of believers, was central to Islam. This community provided internal consolidation and protection from external threats, requiring political institutions like states and governments. Muhammad established such an order in Medina, uniting diverse groups under his political leadership and refining religious rituals and ethical principles.

The Caliphate: Expansion, Civil Wars And Sect Formation

Following the Prophet Muhammad's death in 632 CE, the leadership of the Muslim community transitioned to the caliphate, with the caliph acting as the Prophet's deputy. The first four caliphs (632-661 CE) derived their authority from their close association with Muhammad and aimed to maintain tribal unity and state resources. After Muhammad's death, many tribes broke away, leading the first caliph, Abu Bakr, to suppress these revolts. The second caliph, Umar, expanded the umma's power through military campaigns, recognizing that the modest income from trade and taxes was insufficient to sustain the state. Rich booty from conquering territories belonging to the weakening Byzantine and Sasanian empires (Syria, Iraq, Iran, Egypt) provided necessary resources. These conquests, driven by military strategy, religious fervor, and the opposition's weakness, established an Arab-Islamic state controlling vast territories.

The caliphs established a new administrative structure with governors and tribal chieftains, supported by a central treasury funded by taxes and booty. Soldiers, primarily Bedouins, settled in camp cities like Kufa and Basra. Political expansion led to internal conflicts over resources and offices, intensifying the dominance of the Quraysh tribe from Mecca. The third caliph, Uthman, was assassinated due to opposition, leading to civil wars and the deepening of divisions among Muslims. Ali, the fourth caliph, established his capital in Kufa but was unable to suppress the faction led by Muawiya, a relative of Uthman. Ali's assassination resulted in Muawiya founding the Umayyad dynasty (661-750 CE).

The Umayyads, a prosperous clan of the Quraysh, moved their capital to Damascus, adopting Byzantine administrative practices and introducing hereditary succession. Their rule became increasingly authoritarian, based on statecraft and the loyalty of Syrian troops, though Islam remained their source of legitimacy. Reforms included adopting Arabic as the administrative language and introducing Islamic coinage, replacing Byzantine and Iranian symbols with Arabic inscriptions. The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, built by Abd al-Malik, symbolized the Arab-Islamic presence.

The Abbasids, descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas, overthrew the Umayyads in 750 CE through a movement called 'dawa', promising a return to original Islam. This revolution brought significant political and cultural changes, with Iranian influence increasing and Arab dominance declining. The Abbasids established their capital at Baghdad and reorganized the army and bureaucracy on a non-tribal basis, strengthening the caliphate's religious status and patronizing Islamic institutions and scholars. However, the Abbasid state weakened from the ninth century due to declining central control over distant provinces and internal conflicts, leading to the rise of various minor dynasties and the eventual capture of Baghdad by the Buyids (a Shiite clan) in 945 CE.

The Fatimids, a rival Shiite dynasty claiming descent from the Prophet's daughter Fatima, established their caliphate in Egypt after conquering it in 969 CE, founding the city of Cairo. By 950-1200 CE, Islamic society was unified by common economic and cultural patterns, a developing Persian literary tradition, and intellectual dialogue, despite political fragmentation. The emergence of Turkish sultanates in the tenth and eleventh centuries added a third ethnic group to the political landscape. The Ghaznavids, consolidated by Mahmud of Ghazni, and later the Saljuq Turks, who restored Sunni rule in Baghdad in 1055, played significant roles. The Saljuqs' expansion into Anatolia marked a further shift in political power.

The First Four Caliphs

After Muhammad's death, the first four caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, Ali) led the Muslim community, justifying their authority by their association with the Prophet and continuing his mission. They focused on maintaining tribal unity, expanding the state's territory through conquests of the Byzantine and Sasanian empires, and establishing administrative structures in conquered lands.

The Umayyad Dynasty

Founded by Muawiya in 661 CE, the Umayyad dynasty moved the capital to Damascus and adopted Byzantine administrative practices. They introduced hereditary succession and emphasized Arab and Islamic identities, reforming coinage and building the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. Their rule, however, became increasingly authoritarian and centralized.

The Abbasid Revolution

In 750 CE, the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads through a movement called 'dawa', promising a return to early Islamic principles. This revolution led to a shift in power from Arab dominance to greater Iranian influence, with the establishment of Baghdad as the capital and a reorganization of the state on a non-tribal basis.

Break-up Of The Caliphate And The Rise Of Sultanates

The Abbasid state weakened from the ninth century due to declining central control and internal factionalism. This led to the rise of various independent dynasties, such as the Buyids (Shiite) and the Fatimids (Ismaili Shiite), who challenged Abbasid authority. The Ghaznavids and Saljuq Turks (Sunni) also emerged as significant military powers, influencing the political landscape and the separation of religious and political authority.

The Crusades

From the eleventh century, hostility between Western European Christians and the Islamic world intensified, fueled by religious fervor and socio-economic changes in Europe. The Peace of God movement deflected feudal aggression towards perceived "enemies of God," making warfare against non-believers commendable. Following the disintegration of the Saljuq empire after Sultan Malik Shah's death in 1092, the Byzantine Emperor Alexius I saw an opportunity to regain territory. Pope Urban II, seizing on this, called for a war to liberate the Holy Land, initiating the Crusades between 1095 and 1291. The First Crusade (1098-99) resulted in the capture of Antioch and Jerusalem, accompanied by massacres of Muslims and Jews. The Crusaders established four states in the region, known as Outremer. Later crusades, like the Second Crusade (1145-49), were less successful, and the strength of Outremer gradually eroded due to internal conflicts among Crusader rulers. Salah al-Din (Saladin) recaptured Jerusalem in 1187, treating the Christian population humanely, unlike earlier Christian actions. The Mamluks eventually expelled the Crusaders from Palestine by 1291. The Crusades fostered a harsher attitude from Muslim states towards their Christian subjects and increased the influence of Italian mercantile communities in East-West trade.

Christian-Muslim Relations

In medieval Islamic societies, Christians were recognized as "People of the Book" (ahl al-kitab) and were generally granted safe conduct as merchants, pilgrims, and travelers. However, hostility increased in the eleventh century, partly due to socio-economic changes in Europe and a shift in religious focus towards combating perceived enemies of God.

The First Crusade

Initiated by Pope Urban II in 1095, the First Crusade (1098-99) saw European Christians capture Antioch and Jerusalem, resulting in significant violence against Muslims and Jews. Four Crusader states were established in the region, known as Outremer.

Subsequent Crusades

Later crusades, such as the Second Crusade (1145-49), were largely unsuccessful in achieving their military objectives. Crusader states eventually declined due to internal conflicts, and Salah al-Din's recapture of Jerusalem in 1187 marked a turning point. The Mamluks finally expelled the Crusaders by 1291, ending the Crusades' military impact, though they influenced Christian-Muslim relations and trade patterns.

Economy: Agriculture, Urbanisation And Commerce

Agriculture was the primary occupation in the conquered territories, with land owned by peasants or the state. Large estates in Iraq and Iran were cultivated by peasants, with estate owners collecting taxes for the state. In areas transitioning from pastoralism to settled agriculture, land was often communally owned. The state derived significant income from land revenue, with taxes varying based on cultivation conditions and the religious affiliation of landowners. Non-Muslims paid a land tax (kharaj) and a poll tax (jiziya), while Muslims paid a lower land tax (ushr). To compensate for reduced income due to conversions, uniform taxation policies were adopted. From the tenth century, revenue assignments (iqtas) were used to pay officials.

Agricultural prosperity was linked to political stability and state support for irrigation systems, dams, canals, and wells. Islamic law encouraged cultivation through tax concessions. The expansion of cultivable land and increased productivity, along with the introduction of new crops like cotton, oranges, and bananas, boosted agricultural output and trade. Islamic civilization flourished with a phenomenal growth in cities, many founded as garrison-cities (misr) for Arab soldiers, such as Kufa, Basra, Fustat, and Cairo. Old towns like Damascus, Isfahan, and Samarqand also experienced growth, supported by increased food production and raw materials for urban manufacturing. A vast urban network connected these cities, with congregational mosques and marketplaces at their hearts, and residential quarters for citizens, soldiers, and the urban poor on the outskirts.

The expansion of Islamic territories and urban demand facilitated trade between the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean. For centuries, Arab and Iranian traders dominated maritime trade routes connecting China, India, and Europe. High-value goods were transported via the Red Sea and Persian Gulf to major trading hubs like Baghdad, Damascus, and Aleppo. Transoxiana, a link in the Silk Route, connected Central Asia and China with Russia and Scandinavia, facilitating the exchange of goods like fur and slaves. The fiscal system and market exchange increased the importance of money, with gold, silver, and copper coins minted and circulated. The development of superior payment and business organization methods, such as letters of credit (sakk) and bills of exchange (suftaja), freed merchants from carrying cash, enhancing safety and efficiency. Formal business arrangements like muzaraba (partnership) were common, and while Islam prohibited interest (riba), ingenious methods were used to circumvent it.

Agriculture In The Islamic Lands

Agriculture was the main occupation, with land ownership structures varying from peasant holdings to large estates. The state derived significant revenue from land taxes, and irrigation systems, dams, and canals were supported to enhance productivity. New crops were introduced and exported, contributing to economic prosperity.

Urban Growth

The Islamic state saw a remarkable growth in cities, with many new garrison-cities founded and older towns expanding. These urban centers, supported by increased agricultural and manufacturing output, formed a vast network, with mosques and marketplaces at their core.

Trade Routes And Commerce

The empire's geography facilitated trade between the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean. Arab and Iranian traders dominated routes through the Red Sea and Persian Gulf, connecting East Asia, India, and Europe. Trade involved high-value goods and was supported by efficient overland caravan transport and maritime trade.

Paper, Geniza Records And History

The introduction of paper from China significantly impacted the circulation of written works. The discovery of the Geniza collection in Fustat provided invaluable insights into personal and economic experiences, revealing advanced business skills and commercial techniques of medieval Islamic merchants.

Business Organisation And Credit

The Islamic world developed sophisticated payment and business organization methods, including letters of credit (sakk) and bills of exchange (suftaja). Partnerships (muzaraba) were common, and while interest was prohibited, ingenious methods were used to circumvent usury laws.

Learning And Culture

As Muslim communities engaged with other cultures, they developed intellectual traditions to understand their faith and the world. Religious scholars (ulama) derived knowledge from the Quran and the Prophet Muhammad's traditions (sunna) to guide Muslims and develop Islamic law (sharia). The formation of four major schools of law (Maliki, Hanafi, Shafii, Hanbali) reflected different interpretations of religious sources. Islamic law provided guidance on personal status, commercial matters, and penal issues, often incorporating customary laws (urf) and state regulations (siyasa sharia).

Sufism, a mystical movement, emphasized a personal and direct knowledge of God through asceticism and love, challenging orthodox Islam. Islamic philosophers and scientists, influenced by Greek thought, explored broader questions about the universe and God. Figures like Ibn Sina (Avicenna) contributed significantly to medicine and philosophy, though some of their ideas, like questioning bodily resurrection, faced theological opposition. The translation of Greek and Syriac scientific and philosophical works into Arabic under Abbasid caliphs, particularly at Baghdad's Bayt al-Hikma, spurred intellectual development. Indian works on astronomy, mathematics, and medicine were also translated, influencing European thought.

The development of new subjects fostered critical inquiry, with theologians like the Mutazila using Greek logic to defend Islamic beliefs, and philosophers like Ibn Sina offering alternative visions of the universe. Adab, encompassing literary and cultural refinement, included poetry and prose, with Arabic poetry being revitalized by Persian poets. New Persian literature flourished under the Samanids, with poets like Rudaki and Umar Khayyam gaining prominence. Firdausi's Shahnama (Book of Kings) became a masterpiece of Islamic literature. Historical and geographical writings also developed, combining knowledge from various sources and offering detailed accounts of the world. The Islamic world developed a recognizable architectural style, evident in mosques, shrines, and palaces, characterized by arches, domes, minarets, and courtyards, reflecting both religious and practical needs.

Religious Scholarship (Ulama)

Religious scholars (ulama) focused on interpreting the Quran and the Prophet's traditions (sunna) to establish Islamic law (sharia). Differences in interpretation led to the formation of four main schools of law, providing guidance on various aspects of life.

The Quran

The Quran, considered the literal word of God revealed to Prophet Muhammad, is the central religious text of Islam. Its compilation and interpretation have been subjects of scholarly discussion, with varying approaches to its literal or metaphorical meaning.

Sufism

Sufism emerged as a mystical dimension of Islam, emphasizing personal knowledge of God through asceticism, love, and renunciation. Sufi practices, including musical concerts (sama), aimed to induce spiritual ecstasy and union with God.

Philosophy And Science

Under the influence of Greek thought, Islamic scholars engaged in philosophy and science. Translations of Greek, Syriac, and Indian works spurred advancements in fields like medicine, mathematics, and astronomy, with figures like Ibn Sina (Avicenna) making significant contributions.

Literary Traditions (Adab)

Adab encompassed literary and cultural refinement, including poetry and prose meant for memorization and recitation. Arabic poetry was influenced by Persian traditions, with themes ranging from classical praise poetry to celebrations of wine and love.

Persian Literature

New Persian literature flourished, particularly under the Samanids, with poets like Rudaki and Umar Khayyam gaining renown. Forms like the ghazal and rubai became prominent, expressing diverse themes from love to philosophical reflections.

History Writing

History writing was a well-established tradition, with scholars like Baladhuri and Tabari compiling comprehensive accounts of human history, focusing on the Islamic period. Local histories also developed following the break-up of the caliphate.

Geography And Travel

Geography and travelogue writing combined knowledge from various cultures with firsthand observations. Mathematical geography divided the world into climes, and descriptive geographies offered comparative studies of countries and peoples, contributing to a broader understanding of the world.

Architecture And Art

Islamic civilization developed a distinct architectural style, evident in mosques, shrines, tombs, caravanserais, hospitals, and palaces across its vast territories. Common features included arches, domes, minarets, and open courtyards, adapted to reflect both religious and practical needs. The congregational mosque (masjid al-jami) typically featured a prayer hall with a pillar-supported roof, a central courtyard with a fountain, a niche (mihrab) indicating the direction of Mecca (qibla), and a pulpit (minbar) for Friday sermons. Minarets served as towers for the call to prayer. Islamic art largely eschewed the representation of living beings, focusing instead on calligraphy (khattati) and arabesque (geometric and vegetal designs) for architectural decoration and manuscript illumination. These art forms are beautifully preserved in religious inscriptions, Quranic manuscripts, and decorative elements in various buildings, showcasing the rich artistic heritage of the Islamic world.

Mosque Architecture

Mosques typically featured a central courtyard (sahn) with a fountain, leading to a prayer hall supported by pillars. Key elements included the mihrab (indicating the direction of Mecca) and the minbar (pulpit). Minarets were used for the call to prayer, symbolizing the presence of Islam.

Palace Architecture

Palaces, influenced by Roman and Sasanian styles, were often lavishly decorated with sculptures, mosaics, and paintings. Desert palaces served as luxurious residences and retreats, while Abbasid palaces in cities like Samarra were integrated with gardens and water features.

Calligraphy And Arabesque

Due to the religious prohibition against representing human or animal figures, Islamic art excelled in calligraphy and arabesque. These forms were used extensively in decorating architecture and manuscripts, adding intricate beauty and spiritual meaning to Islamic creations.